Why Inner City Youth Suffer PTSD

â€Å"The Centers for Disease control says these kids often live in virtual war zones, and doctors at Harvard say they actually suffer from a more complex form of PTSD. Some call it ‘Hood Disease.’† San Francisco KPIX television news anchor Wendy Tokuda spoke these words during a broadcast on May 16, 2014. Behind the anchor desk, a visual graphic featured the words â€Å"Hood Disease† in capital letters, in front of a backdrop of a heavily graffitied, boarded up storefront, accented with a strip of yellow police tape. Yet, there is no such thing as hood disease, and Harvard doctors have never uttered these words. After other reporters and bloggers challenged her about the term, Tokuda admitted that a local resident of Oakland had used the term, but that it had not come from public health officials or medical researchers. However, its mythical nature  didn’t stop other reporters and bloggers across the U.S. from reprinting Tokuda’s story and missing the real story: racism and economic inequality take a serious toll on the physical and mental health of those who experience them. The Connection Between Race and Health Eclipsed by this journalistic misdirection is the fact that  post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)  among inner city youth is a real public health problem that demands attention. Speaking to the broader implications of systemic racism, sociologist Joe R. Feagin emphasizes that many of the costs of racism born by people of color in the U.S. are health-related, including lack of access to adequate health care, higher rates of morbidity from heart attacks and cancer, higher rates of diabetes, and shorter life spans. These disproportionate rates manifest largely due to structural inequalities in society that play out across racial lines. Doctors who specialize in public health refer to race as a social determinant of health. Dr. Ruth Shim and her colleagues explained, in an  article published in the January  2014 edition of  Psychiatric Annals, Social determinants are the main drivers of health disparities, which are defined by the World Health Organization as ‘differences in health which are not only unnecessary and avoidable, but, in addition, are considered unfair and unjust.’  In addition, racial, ethnic, socioeconomic, and geographic disparities in health care are responsible for poor health outcomes across a number of illnesses, including cardiovascular disease, diabetes, and asthma. In terms of mental and substance use disorders, disparities in prevalence persist across a wide range of conditions, as do disparities in access to care, quality of care, and overall burden of disease. Bringing a sociological lens to this issue, Dr. Shim and her colleagues add, â€Å"It is important to note that the social determinants of mental health are shaped by the distribution of money, power, and resources, both worldwide and in the U.S.† In short, hierarchies of power and privilege create hierarchies of health. PTSD Is a Public Health Crisis AmongInner City Youth In recent decades medical researchers and public health officials have focused on the psychological implications of living in racially ghettoized, economically blighted inner-city communities. Dr. Marc W. Manseau, a psychiatrist at NYU Medical Center and Bellevue Hospital, who also holds a Masters degree in Public Health, explained to About.com how public health researchers frame the connection between inner city life and mental health. He said, There is a large and recently growing literature on the myriad physical and mental health effects of economic inequality, poverty, and neighborhood deprivation.  Poverty, and concentrated urban poverty in particular, are especially toxic to growth and development in childhood. Rates of most mental illnesses, including but certainly not limited to post-traumatic stress disorder, are higher for those who grow up impoverished. In addition, economic deprivation lowers academic achievement and increases behavioral problems, thus sapping the potential of generations of people.  For these reasons, rising inequality and endemic poverty can and indeed must be viewed as public health crises. It is this very real  relationship between poverty and mental health that San Francisco news anchor, Wendy Tokuda, fixed on when she misstepped and propagated  the myth of â€Å"hood disease.† Tokuda referred to research shared by Dr. Howard Spivak, Director of the Division of Violence Prevention at the CDC, at a Congressional Briefing in April  2012. Dr. Spivack found that children who live in inner cities experience higher rates of PTSD than do combat veterans, due in large part to the fact that the majority of kids living in inner-city neighborhoods are routinely exposed to violence. For example, in Oakland, California, the Bay Area city that Tokuda’s report focused on, two-thirds of the city’s murders take place in East Oakland, an impoverished area. At Freemont High School, students are frequently seen wearing tribute cards around their necks that celebrate the lives and mourn the deaths of friends who have died. Teachers at the school report that students suffer from depression, stress, and denial of what is going on around them. Like all people who suffer from PTSD, the teachers note that anything can set off a student and incite an act of violence. The traumas inflicted on youth by  everyday gun violence was well documented in 2013 by the radio program, This American Life, in their two-part broadcast on Harper High School, located in the Englewood neighborhood of Chicago’s South Side. Why the Term "Hood Disease" is Racist What we know from public health research, and from reports like these done in Oakland and Chicago, is that PTSD is a serious public health problem for inner-city youth across the U.S. In terms of geographic racial segregation, this also means that PTSD  among youth is overwhelmingly a problem for youth of color. And therein lies the problem with the term â€Å"hood disease.† To refer in this way to widespread physical and mental health problems that stem from social structural conditions and economic relations is to suggest that these problems are endemic to â€Å"the hood† itself. As such, the term obscures the very real social and economic forces that lead to these mental health  outcomes. It suggests that poverty and crime are pathological problems, seemingly caused  by this â€Å"disease,† rather than by the conditions in the neighborhood, which are produced by particular social structural and economic relations. Thinking critically, we can also see the term hood disease as an extension of the â€Å"culture of poverty† thesis, propagated by many social scientists and activists in the mid-twentieth century—later soundly disproven—which holds that it is the value system of the poor that keeps them in a cycle of poverty. Within this reasoning, because people grow up poor in poor neighborhoods, they are socialized into values unique to poverty, which then when lived out and acted upon, recreate the conditions of poverty. This thesis is deeply flawed because it is devoid of any considerations of social structural forces that create poverty, and shape the conditions of people’s lives. According to sociologists and race scholars Michael Omi and Howard Winant’s, something is racist  if it â€Å"creates or reproduces structures of domination based on essentialist categories of race.† â€Å"Hood disease,† especially when combined with the visual graphic of boarded up, graffitied buildings blocked by crime scene tape, essentializes—flattens and represents  in a simplistic way—the diverse experiences of a neighborhood of people into a disturbing, racially coded sign. It suggests that those who live in â€Å"the hood† are very much inferior to those who do not—â€Å"diseased,† even. It certainly does not suggest that this problem can be addressed or solved. Instead, it suggests that it is something to be avoided, as are the neighborhoods where it exists. This is colorblind racism at its most insidious. In reality, there is no such thing as â€Å"hood disease, but many inner-city children are suffering the consequences of living in a society that does not meet their  nor their communities basic life needs.  The place is not the problem. The people who live there are not the problem. A society organized to produce unequal access to resources and rights based on race and class is the problem. Dr. Manseau observes, â€Å"Societies serious about improving health and mental health have directly taken on this challenge with substantial proven and documented success. Whether the United States values its most vulnerable citizens enough to make similar efforts remains to be seen.†

The Slavery Of African Americans - 1208 Words

Back when there was Slavery it was unfair to some people, at least to the African Americans. By unfair I mean the whites, like most of us would torture the Africans. Some of the things the owners did was made the slaves work in fields without pay and they had no control over their own self, their owner did. But, if they were not doing, that the owners would do something bad like whip them with a whip with metal on the end. Also, it even was effected in sports because back then it was just whites playing baseball and games like that. Now it is a mix of different skin colors that play today. I know that because when I play sports I either play against different skin colors or I play on the same team as them. In baseball, it was all whites until their was a African American named Jackie Robinson that played sports and he was really good. It probably would have stayed all whites if there wasn’t a man named Branch Rickey, he was the owner that signed Robinson and it changed from th ere. Jackie Robinson was the first African Baseball star. Also, One of the first African Football stars was a man named Tony Nathan. But, Tony went to a High School named Woodlawn, he wanted to play football. Nathan finally got to play as running back. Woodlawn ended up winning lots of games that year. Tony Nathan went to the University of Alabama and played running back. He went into the NFL and played for the Miami Dolphins. Tony played at the Dolphins for 9 seasons, he was a running back, kickShow MoreRelatedSlavery : The African American Slavery2189 Words   |  9 PagesAPUSH - Steiker Period 6 Slavery 1775 - 1830 â€Å"Those who will not reason, are bigots, those who cannot, are fools, and those who dare not, are slaves, † said George Gordon Byron. Though slavery has never had a universal definition, one might describe it as the dependent labour by one person performed to another who is not of his or her family. It was thought to have come about after a dramatic labour shortage in particular areas or countries. In America, slavery has always been a highly debatedRead MoreThe Slavery Of African Americans942 Words   |  4 Pagespeople I met asked me that we Africans sold other Africans into slavery and why? I will tell them well I was not born when it happened, I only learn about slavery in school not even my parents told me so I cannot provide you with genuine reason behind slavery but I do understand this that it may have some economic benefits attached to it and that is a fact, the world back then was like survival of the fittest, slavery was rampant all over the world and not only black Africans were enslaved, many ethnicitiesRead MoreThe Slavery Of African Americans1207 Words   |  5 Pagestime where slavery was legal in America was a dark time that all wish was expunged from the nation’s history. Ever since the end of WWII came around and Japanese and victims of the Holocaust started to receive reparations for the ordeals then endeavored. This launched a proposal that the descendants of the enslaved people in the United States would be given some type of compensation. The form of compensation varies from individual monetary payments to land-based payment. Although the American enslavementRead MoreThe Slavery Of African Americans975 Words   |  4 PagesDuring the early developments of America, multiple states instituted the practice of owning African-Americans and using them as slaves. Surprisingly, this form of slavery was not only present in the Southern states, but also in the Northern too. Plantation owners from all over found their use in own ing slaves, and were even shown taking advantage of the practice. By having ownership of slaves, it often contributed in farming production on plantations and also became useful when it came to votingRead MoreSlavery And The African Americans1071 Words   |  5 Pagesdiscussing slavery with other individuals. Throughout the years I have been a victim of my own ignorance for believing that Slavery undoubtedly ended in 1865. I can honestly admit that I was wrong. After having watched the documentary â€Å"Slavery by Another Name† I gained new insight into the history of slavery and the struggles that African Americans suffered during that time. I learned that slavery did not end after the 13th Amendment was passed. After the Amendment was passed African Americans were victimsRead MoreThe Slavery Of African Americans2011 Words   |  9 Pagespeople to turn to another source which could supply them with slaves. In result, African American slaves were brought to the U.S to facilitate life and work together with the European workforce. These African Americans came from a multitude of places including Africa and the Caribbean. From this day forth the lives of all African Americans changed, having an everlasting effect on their lives. After this, African Americans were viewed as slaves and it was the norm back then, which was a harsh, cruelRead MoreThe Slavery Of African Americans1695 Words   |  7 Pagesthe enslavement of African America ns, to the mistreatment of Native Americans on the Trail of Tears, and the subtle and sometimes overt discrimination oppressing American women today, there has been a long and continuing history of discrimination and unfair action against our fellow citizens. It would be deceitful for us to think that our nation has lived up to the ideals of the words â€Å"all men are created equal† since the day the Constitution was written by the Founders. Slavery comes in many formsRead MoreThe Slavery Of African Americans2857 Words   |  12 Pages A black African-American that was one of the many few who was born free in Wilmington, North Carolina went by the name of David Walker. Walker’s father whom died before his birth was a slave but his mother was a free woman. In the state’s laws Walker inherited his mother’s liberated status although, being free did not keep him from witnessing slavery. Walker traveled throughout his time in his younger days in the South, noticing the injustices of the slave system that the whites had going on. EvenRead MoreThe Slavery Of African Americans1844 Words   |  8 PagesMost African Americans were forcibly migrated from their countries to the United States to be used for the labor in fields and even do home chores for their owners. Many African American men, women and even children were either stolen from their families or sold by their own people to traders who would bring them back to the United States and sold them to white plantation owners. An African American who was bought by white owner was called a slave. The word slaves means â€Å"a person who is a legal propertyRead MoreThe Slavery Of African Americans860 Words   |  4 Pagesand the neighborhoods are infested with drugs and weaponry; then you’re at war. African people have been at war with society, and in spite of the fact that their weapons has slightly been adjusted over the years, it still remains the same endless war we’ve been facing since the settling of African people in the Americas. African people could never fully integrate with the shared heritage and experience within the African identity. Wars have been going on for times on end, from Emmitt Till to the Rosewood

Sustainable Tourism and Sustainable Mass Tourism

Question: Describe about the Sustainable Tourism and Sustainable Mass Tourism? Answer: Sustainable Tourism Sustainable tourism is a type of tourism that takes into account the current as well as future impacts regarding social, economic and environmental issues (Sdt.unwto.org, 2015). As stated by, Newsome et al. (2013) sustainable tourism is becoming more and more popular and ever growing industry. Sustainable tourism can be called as an alternative tourism that serves many social and environmental issues of the locality. Sustainable tourism involves ecotourism, cultural tourism and nature based tourism. Sustainable tourism therefore respects the value of regional culture, environment and the traveler as well as local people. Sustainable tourism has increased in a number that people are looking for an educational holiday in that the people will work for the cause of society and the environment. Therefore, the main aim and objective of sustainable tourism is to increase the employment opportunities as well as developed infrastructure in order to safeguard the culture of the people of local area and the cultural heritage of the place as well as country. On the other hand, Raj et al. (2013) defined that Sustainable Tourism requires the participation of stakeholders of different levels. This type of tourism helps to build consensus among the participants of wide area. Development of sustainable tourism is a continuous process for achieving the proper goal. Sustainable tourism therefore requires necessary monitoring of impact. For this purpose, corrective as well as necessary measures have to be taken by the concerned authority of sustainable tourism. However, Leung (2013) argued that, huge level of satisfaction among the tourists is also required for providing effective sustainable tourism. Sustainable tourism also seeks to raise the awareness of the tourists about some issues of environment and society as well as people of the society. The objective of sustainable tourism also helps to promote efficient tourism practice for the tourists. Therefore, Sigala (2013) argued that sustainable tourism has the aim to balance the requirements of tourists with the demands of the particular communities of local area in order to protect the environmental needs of the locality and also the demands of the people in accordance with the environment and society. The economy of the locality as well as needs of the environment should be balanced for achieving the needs within different groups of interest. However, Guiver (2013) stated in this fact that, the activity of sustainable tourism in third world country has been increased. This process increases the prior activity of developing countries in order to develop the economy, tourism and social aspects of those countries. Sustainable tourism therefore works as the strategy of development of those developing countries throughout the economy, environment as well as people of the society. Attaining an effective strategy of sustainable tourism developing countries can achieve more economic benefit and education as well as opportunities of employment. Sustainable Mass Tourism: As defined by, Guiver (2013), mass tourism involves more than ten thousand people often go to the same hotel or resort within a particular time of a year. This can be called as one of the cheapest technique for planning a holiday. Many tourism organizations often provide mass tourism within attractive package. It is the large scale practice of tourism that does not involve the impact of environment and society. It often does not include measures of several action of environment. On the other hand, Page (2013) argued that the practice of mass tourism often destroys the cultural identities as well as environment of the place. Some stated that mass tourism has not the ability to make business sustainable for the tourists. However, it is some sort of true statement that, the media earns more money from the advertising the location of the tourist spot etc. Therefore, the package product has been used for the mass tourism. Therefore, mass tourism does not encourage the practice of keeping the environment clean and clear. Often this type of mass tourism destroys the environment as well as the habitants of the particular place where tourists come in order to enjoy the holiday. This type of tourism also does not provide adequate attention to the local cultural heritage of the place. Therefore, Leung (2013) describes that practice of mass tourism often helps to market the place for only profitable purpose of business. The image of consumerism has been implemented within the mind of the consumers rather than tourists. Several tour organizers reconstruct the image of the particular tourist spot as product for the consumers. They often create a package of the particular place in accordance with the attractive features those are beyond the cultural heritage of the particular place. The purpose of education of the local people is often destroyed by this type of mass tourism. This type of business does not focus upon the environmental sustainability of the place. They have no responsibility upon the local people of the place or the society (Sustainabletourism.net,2015). Appropriateness of sustainable mass tourism for future positioning of destinations: Appropriate process of tourism can be achieved effectively is the tourist organization. Appropriate planning and managing activity should be done for developing the activity of mass tourism that will ensure the business process of the particular organization. Sustainable destination should be considered with three major aspects like carrying capacity, management of destination as well as strategic planning. Therefore, carrying capacity can be referred as the central concept of sustainable tourism. Carrying capacity of destination can be useful in order to understand the tourism activity (Sustainabletourism.net, 2015). Managing the destination refers to the management of the particular place of tourism with effective tool of strategic management. Process of destination management helps to provide competitive tourism for the destination. Coordination among the management activities therefore help in order to provide effective management for the destination. Therefore, destination management involves planning and development process, management and marketing process. Therefore, strategic planning is necessary for the development of sustainable. Destination management helps to encourage the collaboration as well as cooperation in order to strengthen the practice of sustainable mass tourism (UNESCO, 2015). Reference list: Books Newsome, D., Moore, S. and Dowling, R. (2013). Natural area tourism. Bristol: Channel View Publications. Page, S. (2013). Tourism management. London: Routledge. Raj, R., Griffin, K. and Morpeth, N. (2013). Cultural tourism. Cambridge, MA: CAB International. Journals Guiver, J. (2013). Debate: Can sustainable tourism include flying?. Tourism Management Perspectives, 6, pp.65-67. Leung, X. (2013). Strategic Marketing in Tourism Services. Tourism Management, 37, pp.112-113. Sigala, M. (2013). Tourism, Magic and Modernity: Cultivating the Human Garden. Tourism Management, 37, p.36. Websites Sdt.unwto.org, (2015). Sustainable Development of Tourism | Committed to Tourism, Travel and the Millennium Development Goals. [online] Available at: https://sdt.unwto.org [Accessed 6 Mar. 2015]. Sustainabletourism.net, (2015). Sustainable Tourism. [online] Available at: https://www.sustainabletourism.net [Accessed 6 Mar. 2015]. UNESCO, (2015). UNESCO. [online] Available at: https://www.unesco.org [Accessed 6 Mar. 2015].

Reading Philosophies free essay sample

Is the student| |Constructivist |and cultural belief can influence the |along with the teacher a book. |responding or actively participating in class | | |learning along with interactions of other |Teacher will give the student a project on a topic|discussions | | |students in the classroom. and then will present it in front of the class |Mind mapping will have the students list and | | |In a classroom that utilizes the theory of |Have the students watch a clip or a movie and then|categorize new concepts | | |constructivism, there would be: |the teacher will conduct a discussion afterwards |Pre-assessments allows the teacher to know what | | |Vigorous participation |Teacher can take the students on a field trip to |the students know and what topics they will need | | | Small group interactions |relate real world experiences to the concepts |to be taught | | |New concepts shown within context |learned in class |Hands on activities assess how the students can | | |Previous knowledge used to create new | |utilize a particular learning tool | | |knowledge | | | |Questions or activities to lead to new | | | | |concepts | | | | |This theory is based on the teacher defines |Teacher can have the students underline a portion |Assessments though individual work. We will write a custom essay sample on Reading Philosophies or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Is the | |Explicit or Direct |and model the concept, guides the students |of the text on an overhead or on the board to |student completing and doing individual | |Instruction |through application, and creates guided |depict whatever topic is being discussed, like |assignments? | | |practice until there is mastery of the |naming the nouns, proper nouns, prepositions, etc. |Assessment through a test or quiz with an essay | | |concept. Ask the students to check the text on the overhead|writing or project report | | |In this model, the classroom will consists |because you need to prove whatever topic is being |An informal assessment through having the | | |of: |discussed |children do â€Å"thumbs up or thumbs down† | | |Direct instruction of phonemic awareness |Ask the students to read a passage to see if it | | | |Decoding skills |sounds right and makes sense, then ask if there | | | |Rules of language |should be any revisions | | | | |Skill based worksheets, flash cards, or ga me | | | | |relating to the new concept | | Reading Philosophies It is important to know what type of effective teaching strategies you want to have when you step inside the classroom doors. Although there are many different teaching styles, the two most common philosophies are direct/explicit instruction and constructivist. Choosing either method is a matter of preference and what will work best for the teacher and the students. No matter what, the information that is given to the students must be informative and related to their needs as well as their particular grade level. This essay will discuss both approaches and what method I would like to utilize when I become a teacher. â€Å"Teachers can give students ladders that lead to higher understanding, yet the students themselves must climb these ladders† (Slavin, 2009, p. 231) emphasizes the view of a constructivist in which the students are vital roles in their own learning and development. A traditional idea about teaching is comparable to the constructivist method of teaching. This method commonly has the teacher identifying learning objectives, planning learning activities, and creating assessments. However this theory relies on the student’s knowledge and more hands on activities. The teacher’s role is to facilitate personal learning by establishing a community of learners, and by making it clear to the student that he or she is part of the community (Baines Stanley, 2000). Jean Piaget is well known for generally attributing to the formalization of constructivism. Piaget felt that accommodation and assimilation will help students construct new knowledge from their past experiences. When students assimilate, they will digest their new experience into a pre-existing context without altering the new context. It is also important to know that constructivism is not a specific pedagogy. In short, this theory describes how learning happens, despite of whether students are using their past experiences to comprehend the lesson. In a constructivist classroom, there would be (1) vigorous participation (2) small group discussions (3) concepts introduced within context, and (4) authentic literature, (GCU, 2013). Truthfully, many aspects of constructivism are commendable (Baines Stanley, 2000). One component of this theory is small group discussions. The next theory is direct or explicit instruction. This model (1) sets the stage for learning (2) teacher provides clear explanation of what to do (3) modeling the process (4) guided practice, and (4) independent practice. Throughout explicit instruction, teachers are responsible for monitoring the students’ needs and providing them a kind of scaffolding that is appropriate throughout their learning process. Modeling is a key component of scaffolded instruction (Truscott Truscott, 2004). When this strategy is used there will be gradual withdrawal of supportive learning structures to eventually become the sole responsibility of the student (Truscott Truscott, 2004). This concept has been known to improve learning however it may take a long time for the student to master. However once it is mastered, the student feels a sense of accomplishment and self-sufficient. Explicit instructions make the student responsible as well in a different way that constructivism is administered. Students will know and understand what they are expected to perform by themselves and what goals that they will work towards. In the content of reading, studies have shown that direct teaching of word meanings in a reading passage is more effective than an uninstructed vocabulary learning approach (Sanbul Schmitt (2010). There is an allowance for student engagement as well. Learning is an active process. Teachers of this model will maintain the classroom with proper behavior; however students should stay actively involved in the lesson in order to have the greatest impact on their learning. While they are being taught, students will be focused on the lesson as well as try to make sense of the new material. I feel that either theory is the not better than the other. I feel that both theories can work together in a classroom if they are balanced out. A study was conducted at the University of Kansas of 83 students who were targeted in the winter of kindergarten as being high risk for reading failure. Interventions were conducted in small groups of one to six students for thirty minute sessions, three times per week, for a two year period (Kamps, Abbot, Greenwood, Wills, Verrkamp, Kaufman, 2008). Reading comprehension is a very complex skill to teach. In this study, the students worked on comprehension strategies including decoding words, phonological awareness, alphabet knowledge and rapid letter naming. As a result, the findings from this study proved that small group instruction improved in critical early literacy skills. Some students even advanced to grade level performance (Kamps, Abbot, Greenwood, Wills, Verrkamp, Kaufman, 2008). I feel this is a great example of both theories placed into one. The teacher was incorporated by working directly with the students; however the students were placed in smaller groups like in the constructivism theory. In my classroom, I would use constructivism to create a print-rich environment with student’s work posted and a time that students are free and able to discuss classroom topics. I would also relate the content that is being taught to a life experience so the students can understand that specific content area. I would also create high levels of interaction with lots of group work. However there will be a time for explicit instruction. I will monitor the students for understanding to make sure that they are deriving meaning from the instruction. I also think it is important that I model the assignment before I give it, especially for kindergarten because their understanding for directions is still very new. All teaching strategies or theories require some form of assessment to make sure the student understands the given concept. Although both theories are quite different, the assessments are the same. The assessments are either formative or summative. Teachers will use formative assessments through class observations of participation, questioning strategies, and peer or self assessment. Through summative strategies, it is usually benchmark exams or state mandated standardized testing. In conclusion, both theories have been proven to be very successful. Researchers agree that teachers need to be adaptive to meet students’ diverse and individual needs (Parsons, Davis, Scales, Williams, Kear, 2010). No one can clearly state which theory works better. I have observed both theories inside classrooms of today and the students were successful in their learning. I feel that whatever works best for you and your students, then just go for it. Bottom line, we need the students to become successful and proper citizens once they graduate so I hope to do my best when I am teaching and use both theories to make it happen. References Baines, L. A. , Stanley, G. (2000). We Want to See the Teacher. . Phi Delta Kappan, 82(4), 327. Kamps, D. , Abbott, M. , Greenwood, C. , Wills, H. , Veerkamp, M. , Kaufman, J. (2008). Effects of Small-Group Reading Instruction and Curriculum Differences for Students Most at Risk in Kindergarten. Journal Of Learning Disabilities, 41(2), 101-114. Parsons, S. A. , Davis, S. G. , Scales, R. Q. Williams, B. , Kear, K. A. (2010). How AND WHY TEACHERS ADAPT THEIR LITERACY INSTRUCTION. College Reading Association Yearbook, (31), 221-236. Slavin, R. E. (2009). Educational Psychology. In R. E. Slavin, Educational Psychology (pp. 30-44). Upper Saddle River: Pearson Education, Inc. Sonbul, S. , Schmitt, N. (2010). Direct teachi ng of vocabulary after reading: is it worth the effort?. ELT Journal: English Language Teachers Journal, 64(3), 253-260. doi:10. 1093/elt/ccp059 Truscott, D. M. , Truscott, S. D. (2004). A professional development model for the positive practice of school-based reading consultation. Psychology In The Schools, 41(1), 51-65.